In vitro suppression of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus by Panax notoginseng saponins: assessing antiviral potential.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) causes severe diarrhea and high mortality in neonatal suckling piglets, leading to significant economic losses to the swine industry. Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) are bioactive extracts derived from the P. notoginseng plant. In this study, we investigated the anti-PEDV effect of PNS by employing various methodologies to assess their impact on PEDV in Vero cells. Using a CCK-8 (Cell Counting Kit-8) assay, we found that PNS had no significant cytotoxicity below the concentration of 128 µg/mL in Vero cells. Using immunofluorescence assays (IFAs), an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and plaque formation assays, we observed a dose-dependent inhibition of PEDV infection by PNS within 24-48 hours postinfection. PNS exerts its anti-PEDV activity specifically at the genome replication stage, and mRNA-seq analysis demonstrated that treatment with PNS resulted in increased expression of various genes, including IFIT1 (interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 1), IFIT3 (interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 3), CFH (complement factor H), IGSF10 (immunoglobulin superfamily member 10), ID2 (inhibitor of DNA binding 2), SPP1 (secreted phosphoprotein 1), PLCB4 (phospholipase C beta 4), and FABP4 (fatty acid binding protein 4), but it resulted in decreased expression of IL1A (interleukin 1 alpha), TNFRSF19 (TNF receptor superfamily member 19), CDH8 (cadherin 8), DDIT3 (DNA damage inducible transcript 3), GADD45A (growth arrest and DNA damage inducible alpha), PTPRG (protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type G), PCK2 (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 2), and ADGRA2 (adhesion G protein-coupled receptor A2). This study provides insights into the potential mechanisms underlying the antiviral effects of PNS. Taken together, the results suggest that the PNS might effectively regulate the defense response to the virus and have potential to be used in antiviral therapies.

Comparative analysis of the interactions of different Streptococcus suis strains with monocytes, granulocytes and the complement system in porcine blood.

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is an important porcine pathogen causing meningitis, arthritis, and septicemia. Serotypes 2 and 14 are the most common zoonotic ones worldwide, whereas serotypes 2, 9, and 7 are very important in pigs in Europe. To cause invasive infections S. suis needs to enter the bloodstream. Consequently, the immune response in blood represents an important line of defense and bacteremia plays a key role in the pathogenesis of invasive S. suis infections. We investigated the working hypothesis that S. suis strains of the same serotype but different clonal complex (CC) might exhibit substantial differences in the interaction with components of the immune system in porcine blood. The experimental design of this study includes comparative analysis of 8 virulent strains belonging to 4 serotypes with strains of the same serotype being genetically not closely related. Significant differences between two strains of the same serotype but different clonal complex were recorded in the flow cytometric analysis of association with different leukocytes for serotype 9 and 14. Our results demonstrate that the serotype 9 strain of CC94 shows significantly increased association with monocytes and survival in porcine blood of conventional piglets as well as a tendency towards decreased composition of C3 in plasma of these piglets in comparison to the serotype 9 strain of CC16. Correlation analysis of C3 deposition on the bacterial surface and survival in respective blood samples of 8-week-old piglets demonstrated a negative correlation indicating that C3 deposition is a crucial step to limit bacterial survival and proliferation of different S. suis pathotypes in the blood of these piglets. In summary, our results indicate that the capsule composition of a S. suis strain is not alone sufficient to determine association with leukocytes, activation of complement, induction of proinflammatory cytokines, oxidative burst, and bacterial survival in porcine blood. In this study, substantial differences in these host-pathogen interactions were observed between strains of the same serotype. Therefore, a more comprehensive characterization of the field isolates, including at least MLST analysis to determine the sequence type/clonal complex, is recommended.

An edible kanamycin sulfate cross-linked cellulose active against multiple pathogenic bacteria.

In this work, an edible cellulose-based antibacterial material was prepared by cross-linking α-cellulose and kanamycin sulfate via glutaraldehyde to form kanamycin sulfate-glutaraldehyde-cellulose. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction results indicated that the kanamycin sulfate molecule was cross-linked with the molecular chain of cellulose. The optimal mass ratio of kanamycin sulfate to α-cellulose was 1:100 and the degree of substitution reached 1.11%. The optimal kanamycin sulfate-glutaraldehyde-cellulose material showed an excellent inhabitation against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Meantime, the optimal kanamycin sulfate-glutaraldehyde-cellulose had a marked resistance to gastric acid and had low cell cytotoxicity. To promote the application of the kanamycin sulfate-glutaraldehyde-cellulose material, the porous microspheres were prepared via the sol-gel method. The particle size of the homogeneous porous microspheres is mainly distributed between 1.5 and 2.0 µm. Therefore, the kanamycin sulfate-glutaraldehyde-cellulose described herein is a potential edible, eco-friendly, potent, stable, inexpensive, and antibacterial carrier material for delivering drugs, proteins, or vaccines.

Quantitative proteomic analysis reveals that serine/threonine kinase is involved in Streptococcus suis virulence and adaption to stress conditions.

The eukaryotic-type serine/threonine kinase of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 (SS2) performs critical roles in bacterial pathogenesis. In this study, isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) MS/MS were used to analyze the protein profiles of wild type strain SS2-1 and its isogenic STK deletion mutant (Δstk). A total of 281 significant differential proteins, including 147 up-regulated and 134 down-regulated proteins, were found in Δstk. Moreover, 69 virulence factors (VFs) among these 281 proteins were predicted by the Virulence Factor Database (VFDB), including 38 downregulated and 31 up-regulated proteins in Δstk, among which 15 down regulated VFs were known VFs of SS2. Among the down-regulated proteins, high temperature requirement A (HtrA), glutamine synthase (GlnA), ferrichrome ABC transporter substrate-binding protein FepB, and Zinc-binding protein AdcA are known to be involved in bacterial survival and/or nutrient and energy acquisition under adverse host conditions. Overall, our results indicate that STK regulates the expression of proteins involved in virulence of SS2 and its adaption to stress environments.

Co-infection analysis of bacterial and viral respiratory pathogens from clinically healthy swine in Eastern China.

Porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) is one of the most challenging health concerns for pig production worldwide. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of pathogens associated with PRDC, including porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) and bacterial agents, such as Streptococcus suis, Haemophilus parasuis and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, in clinically healthy pigs in Eastern China. Molecular detection revealed positive single-pathogen detection rates of 59.9%, 27.2%, 52.3%, 33.2% and 0.4% for PCV2, PRRSV, S. suis, H. parasuis and A. pleuropneumoniae, respectively. Co-infection with more than one pathogen was frequently detected in these samples, with PCV2/S. suis, H. parasuis and PCV2/H. parasuis mixed infection rates of 35.4%, 33.2% and 21.6%, respectively, and PCV2/S. suis/H. parasuis and PRRSV/PCV2/S. suis co-infection rates of 21.6% and 6.2%, respectively. These results suggest that mixed infections are prevalent among PRDC cases in swine, which may pose a greater threat to the health of herds compared with single-pathogen infections.

In vitro and In vivo Antibacterial Effects of Nisin Against Streptococcus suis.

Nisin is a promising therapeutic candidate because of its potent activity against Gram-positive bacteria. The present study aimed to describe the in vitro and in vivo antibacterial effects of nisin against Streptococcus suis, an important zoonotic pathogen. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimal bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of nisin against different S. suis strains ranged from 0.12 to 4.0 µg/mL and from 0.25 to 8.0 µg/mL, respectively. Time-killing curve assays illustrated that nisin killed 100% of tested virulent S. suis strains within 4 h when used at 2× MIC, which indicates the rapid bactericidal activity of nisin against the bacteria. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy revealed that nisin destroyed S. suis cell membrane integrity and affected its cellular ultrastructure, including a significantly wrinkled surface, intracellular content leakage, and cell lysis. In addition, nisin inhibited biofilm formation by S. suis in a concentration-dependent manner and exhibited strong degrading activities against preformed biofilms. More importantly, nisin displayed antimicrobial activity against S. suis infection in vivo. Upon treatment with 5.0-10 mg/kg nisin solution, the survival rates of mice challenged with a lethal dose of virulent S. suis virulent ranged 87.5-100%. Nisin significantly decreased bacterial proliferation and translocation in the mouse spleen, brain, and blood. These results indicate that nisin has potential as a novel antimicrobial agent for the clinical treatment and prevention of infection caused by S. suis in animals.

Screening of Streptococcus Suis serotype 2 resistance genes with GWAS and transcriptomic microarray analysis.

BACKGROUND: Swine streptococcosis has caused great economic loss in the swine industry, and the major pathogen responsible for this disease is Streptococcus Suis serotype 2 (SS2). Disease resistance breeding is a fundamental way of resolving this problem. With the development of GWAS and transcriptomic microarray technology, we now have powerful research tools to identify SS2 resistance genes. RESULTS: In this research, we generated an F2 generation of SS2 resistant C57BL/6 and SS2 susceptive A/J mice. With the F2 generation of these two mice strains and GWAS analysis, we identified 286 significant mouse genome SNPs sites associated with the SS2 resistance trait. Gene expression profiles for C57BL/6 and A/J were analyzed under SS2 infection pressure by microarray. In total, 251 differentially expressed genes were identified between these two mouse strains during SS2 infection. After combining the GWAS and gene expression profile data, we located two genes that were significantly associated with SS2 resistance, which were the UBA domain containing 1 gene (Ubac1) and Epsin 1 gene (Epn 1). GO classification and over-representation analysis revealed nine up-regulated related to immune function, which could potentially be involved in the C57BL/6 SS2 resistance trait. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to use both SNP chip and gene express profile chip for SS2 resistance gene identification in mouse, and these results will contribute to swine SS2 resistance breeding.

The Redox-Sensing Regulator Rex Contributes to the Virulence and Oxidative Stress Response of Streptococcus suis Serotype 2.

Streptococcus suis serotype 2 (SS2) is an important zoonotic pathogen responsible for septicemia and meningitis. The redox-sensing regulator Rex has been reported to play critical roles in the metabolism regulation, oxidative stress response, and virulence of various pathogens. In this study, we identified and characterized a Rex ortholog in the SS2 virulent strain SS2-1 that is involved in bacterial pathogenicity and stress environment susceptibility. Our data show that the Rex-knockout mutant strain Δrex exhibited impaired growth in medium with hydrogen peroxide or a low pH compared with the wildtype strain SS2-1 and the complementary strain CΔrex. In addition, Δrex showed a decreased level of survival in whole blood and in RAW264.7 macrophages. Further analyses revealed that Rex deficiency significantly attenuated bacterial virulence in an animal model. A comparative proteome analysis found that the expression levels of several proteins involved in virulence and oxidative stress were significantly different in Δrex compared with SS2-1. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays revealed that recombinant Rex specifically bound to the promoters of target genes in a manner that was modulated by NADH and NAD+. Taken together, our data suggest that Rex plays critical roles in the virulence and oxidative stress response of SS2.

Complete Genome Sequence of Streptococcus suis Serotype 2 Virulent Strain SS2-1.

Streptococcus suis is an important swine pathogen that can also cause severe diseases in humans. Herein, we describe the genome sequence of Streptococcus suis serotype 2 virulent strain SS2-1, which was isolated from a diseased dead pig amid the 1998 Streptococcus suis outbreak in Jiangsu Province in China.

Chinese herbal medicinal ingredients affect secretion of NO, IL-10, ICAM-1 and IL-2 by endothelial cells.

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-endotoxin effects of sinomenine, fangchinoline, stachydrine, chuanxionggzine, oxymartrine and evodiamine alkaloids commonly found in Chinese herbal medicines. Porcine endothelial cells were challenged with 1 µg LPS/ml for 3 h and then treated with one of the six alkaloids at three concentrations (1, 5 or 10 µg/ml) for a further 21 h. The supernatants of the cultures were then collected and analyzed for levels of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin (IL)-10, intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and IL-2 using ELISA kits. The results revealed that sinomenine, stachydrine and chuanxionggzine inhibited production of NO; stachydrine and evodiamine inhibited secretion of IL-10; sinomenine and chuanxionggzine down-regulated ICAM-1 expression; oxymartrine and evodiamine decreased production of IL-2 by the LPS-stimulated endothelial cells. Overall, the data from these studies suggested to us that these six alkaloids might effectively reduce inflammatory responses in situ via changes in the formation of these key regulatory molecules/proteins.

Contribution of eukaryotic-type serine/threonine kinase to stress response and virulence of Streptococcus suis.

Streptococcus suis serotype 2 (SS2) is an important swine and human pathogen responsible for septicemia and meningitis. The bacterial homologues of eukaryotic-type serine/threonine kinases (ESTKs) have been reported to play critical roles in various cellular processes. To investigate the role of STK in SS2, an isogenic stk mutant strain (Δstk) and a complemented strain (CΔstk) were constructed. The Δstk showed a significant decrease in adherence to HEp-2 cells, compared with the wild-type strain, and a reduced survival ratio in whole blood. In addition, the Δstk exhibited a notable reduced tolerance of environmental stresses including high temperature, acidic pH, oxidative stress, and high osmolarity. More importantly, the Δstk was attenuated in both the CD1 mouse and piglet models of infection. The results of quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis indicated that the expressions of a few genes involving in adherence, stress response and virulence were clearly decreased in the Δstk mutant strain. Our data suggest that SsSTK is required for virulence and stress response in SS2.

Characterization and proteome analysis of inosine 5-monophosphate dehydrogenase in epidemic Streptococcus suis serotype 2.

Streptococcus suis serotype 2 (SS2) is an important zoonotic pathogen that causes severe disease symptoms in pigs and humans. In the present study, we found one isogenic mutant lacking inosine 5-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) ΔZY05719 was attenuated in pigs compared with the wild-type SS2 strain ZY05719. Comparative proteome analysis of the secreted proteins expression profiles between ZY05719 and ΔZY05719 allowed us to identify Triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) and glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), which were down expressed in the absence of the IMPDH. Both of them are glycolytic enzymes participating in the glycolytic pathway. Compared with ZY05719, ΔZY05719 lost the ability of utilize mannose, which might relate to down expression of TPI and GAPDH. In addition, GAPDH is a well-known factor that involved in adhesion to host cells, and we demonstrated ability of adhesion to HEp-2 and PK15 by ΔZY05719 was significantly weakened, in contrast to ZY05719. The adhesion to host cells is the crucial step to cause infection for pathogen, and the reduction adhesion of ΔZY05719, to some extent illustrates the attenuated virulence of ΔZY05719.

Monoclonal antibodies against Nsp2 protein of the highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) continues to be a serious threat, causing an economically significant impact on the swine industry worldwide. In this study, non-structural protein Nsp2 of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by dialysis. An important monoclonal antibody (MAb 2H6) against Nsp2 protein was generated by fusing mouse myeloma cell line SP2/0 with spleen lymphocytes from Nsp2 protein immunized mice. Then activity of the MAb was characterized by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blot analysis, and indirect immunofluorescence assays. The results demonstrated that the MAb has a positive reaction to HP-PRRSV in IFA at 1:100 dilution and in Western blot analysis at 1:500 dilution, and no reaction with classic PRRSV. These indicated that this MAb against Nsp2 protein of PRRSV might be a good candidate for a specific diagnostic method and functional exploration of the Nsp2 protein.

Complete genome sequence of a recombinant porcine epidemic diarrhea virus strain from eastern china.

A field porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) strain, JS2008, was isolated from stool samples of a piglet with acute diarrhea on a vaccinated farm in eastern China. We sequenced and analyzed the complete genome of strain JS2008, which will help increase our understanding of the molecular characteristics of the epidemic PEDV in China.

Protection of guinea pigs by vaccination with a recombinant swinepox virus co-expressing HA1 genes of swine H1N1 and H3N2 influenza viruses.

Swine influenza (SI) is an acute respiratory infectious disease of swine caused by swine influenza virus (SIV). SIV is not only an important respiratory pathogen in pigs but also a potent threat to human health. Here, we report the construction of a recombinant swinepox virus (rSPV/H3-2A-H1) co-expressing hemagglutinin (HA1) of SIV subtypes H1N1 and H3N2. Immune responses and protection efficacy of the rSPV/H3-2A-H1 were evaluated in guinea pigs. Inoculation of rSPV/H3-2A-H1 yielded neutralizing antibodies against SIV H1N1 and H3N2. The IFN-γ and IL-4 concentrations in the supernatant of lymphocytes stimulated with purified SIV HA1 antigen were significantly higher (P < 0.01) than those of the control groups. Complete protection of guinea pigs against SIV H1N1 or H3N2 challenge was observed. No SIV shedding was detected from guinea pigs vaccinated with rSPV/H3-2A-H1 after challenge. Most importantly, the guinea pigs immunized with rSPV/H3-2A-H1 did not show gross and micrographic lung lesions. However, the control guinea pigs experienced distinct gross and micrographic lung lesions at 7 days post-challenge. Our data suggest that the recombinant swinepox virus encoding HA1 of SIV H1N1 and H3N2 might serve as a promising candidate vaccine for protection against SIV H1N1 and H3N2 infections.

Immune responses and protective efficacy of a recombinant swinepox virus co-expressing HA1 genes of H3N2 and H1N1 swine influenza virus in mice and pigs.

The recombinant swine poxvirus rSPV/H3-2A-H1 co-expressing HA1 genes of H3N2 and H1N1 subtype SIV has been constructed and identified. Inoculations of rSPV/H3-2A-H1 yielded ELISA and neutralization antibodies against SIV H1N1 and H3N2, and elicited potent H1N1 and H3N2 SIV-specific INF-γ response from T-lymphocytes in mice and pigs in this study. Complete protection against SIV H1N1 or H3N2 challenge in pigs was observed.

Immune responses and protection efficacy of a recombinant swinepox virus expressing HA1 against swine H3N2 influenza virus in mice and pigs.

Swine influenza virus (SIV) is not only an important respiratory pathogen in pigs but also a potent threat to human health. Even though immunization with recombinant vaccinia poxviruses expressing protective antigens as a vaccination strategy has been widely used for many infectious diseases, development of recombinant swinepox virus (rSPV) vector for this purpose has been less successful. Here, we report the construction of a recombinant swinepox virus (rSPV) expressing hemagglutinin (HA1) of H3N2 SIV (rSPV-H3). Immune responses and protection efficacy of the vaccination vector were assessed in both mouse and pig models. Prime and boost inoculations of rSPV-H3 yielded neutralization antibody against SIV and elicited potent H3N2 SIV-specific INF-γ response from T-lymphocytes. Complete protection of pigs against H3N2 SIV challenge was achieved. No pigs showed severe systemic and local reactions and no SIV was found shed from the pigs vaccinated with rSPV-H3 after challenge. The data suggest that the SPV-based recombinant vector expressing HA1 of H3N2 SIV might serve as a promising SIV vaccine for protection against SIV infection.

First insights into the protective effects of a recombinant swinepox virus expressing truncated MRP of Streptococcus suis type 2 in mice.

To explore the potential of the swinepox virus (SPV) as vector for Streptococcus suis vaccines, a vector system was developed for the construction of a recombinant SPV carrying bacterial genes. Using this system, a recombinant virus expressing truncated muramidase-released protein (MRP) of S. suis type 2 (SS2), designated rSPV-MRP, was produced and identified by PCR, western blotting and immunofluorescence assays. The rSPV-MRP was found to be only slightly attenuated in PK-15 cells, when compared with the wild-type virus. After immunization intramuscularly with rSPV-MRP, SS2 inactive vaccine (positive control), wild-type SPV (negative control) and PBS (blank control) respectively, all CD1 mice were challenged with a lethal dose or a sublethal dose of SS2 highly virulent strain ZY05719. While SS2 inactive vaccine protected all mice, immunization with rSPV-MRP resulted in 60% survival and protected mice against a lethal dose of the highly virulent SS2 strain, compared with the negative control (P < 0.05). Our data indicate that animals immunized with rSPV-MRP had a significantly reduced bacterial burden in all organs examined, compared to negative controls and blank controls (P <0.05). Antibody titers of the rSPV-MRP-vaccinated group were significantly higher (P <0.001), when compared to negative controls and blank controls. Antibody titers were also significantly higher in the vaccinated group at all time points post-vaccination (P <0.001), compared with the positive controls. These initial results demonstrated that the rSPV-MRP provided mice with protection from systemic SS2 infection. If SPV recombinants have the potential as S. suis vaccines for the use in pigs has to be evaluated in further studies.

Immune responses and protective efficacy of a recombinant swinepox virus expressing HA1 against swine H1N1 influenza virus in mice and pigs.

Swine influenza virus (SIV) is not only an important respiratory pathogen in pigs but also a potent threat to human health. Although immunization with recombinant poxviruses expressing protective antigens as vaccines has been widely used for against many infectious diseases, development of recombinant swinepox virus (rSPV) vector for the purpose has been less successful. Here, we report the construction of a recombinant swinepox virus (rSPV-HA1) expressing hemagglutinin (HA1) of H1N1 SIV. Immune responses and protection efficacy of the vaccination vector were evaluated in both the mouse model and the natural host: pig. Prime and boost inoculations of rSPV-HA1 yielded high levels of neutralization antibody against SIV and elicited potent H1N1 SIV-specific IFN-γ response from T-lymphocytes. Complete protection of pigs against H1N1 SIV challenge was observed. No pigs showed evident systemic and local reactions to the vaccine and no SIV shedding was detected from pigs vaccinated with rSPV-HA1 after challenge. Our data demonstrated that the recombinant swinepox virus encoding HA1 of SIV H1N1 may serve as a promising SIV vaccine for protection against SIV infection.